Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac
Newton (December 25, 1642 - March 20, 1727) World of English is one of the most
prominent scholars contribution in physics and mathematics through the ages,
and one of the symbols of the scientific revolution. Newton held the position
of president of the Royal Society, and was a member of the English Parliament,
in addition to assuming the presidency of the Royal Mint, and his fellowship to
Trinity College in Cambridge, the second to Ocazi professor of mathematics at
Cambridge University. The foundations of his sports assets of natural
philosophy, which was published for the first time in 1687, most of the
principles of classical mechanics. He also presented Newton also made important
contributions in the field of optics, and Gottfried Leibniz participated in
laying the foundations of calculus.
Newton
formulated the laws of motion and law of gravitation, which seized control of
the universe, scientists see the material for the next three centuries. It also
demonstrated that the movement of objects on Earth and of celestial objects can
be described according to the same principles of motion and gravity. Through
the derivation of Kepler's laws of gravity described athlete, Newton removed
the last doubts about the validity of the theory of the heliocentric model of
the universe.
Newton made
the first practical telescope reflector, and the development of a theory of
color based on his observations reached by using a prism Dispersion analysis of
white light to the visible spectrum, as coined practical law for cooling and
studied the speed of sound. In addition to the founding of the calculus, Newton
also contributed to the study of power series and the binomial theorem, and the
development of Newton's method to approximate the roots of functions.
Newton was a
devout Christian, but are non-traditional. It has refused to take the sacred
teachings of the Anglican, perhaps because he refused to faith in the doctrine
of the Trinity. Newton also spent a lot of time in the study of alchemy and the
history of the Old Testament, but most of its work in these areas remained
unpublished until long after his death.
Its
inception
Isaac Newton
was born on December 25, 1642 (according to the Julian calendar in force in
England at the time, corresponding to January 4, 1643 in accordance with the
modern calendar). On a farm and Olsthorb in Olsthorb - Claustroorth, in the
province of Enkoncher, after the death of his father three months, who was a
farmer also named Isaac Newton. Came his mother's labor and gave birth to her
son after an hour or two from the middle of the night and the moon was in that
night is full, and due to his birth early was a kid small size so that the two
women were Tatinean his mother were sent to fetch medicine from the
neighborhood but instead of would accelerate to bring the drug decided that
Tstriha On the way, thinking that a child born of them may have died because of
its size. Has been described by his mother Hanna Ayskov that can be placed in
the quart. When he was three years old, his mother married and moved to live in
the home of her new husband, leaving her son in the care of his grandmother to
his mother, which was called Margaret Ayskov. Isaac did not endear stepfather,
but he feels the feelings of hostility towards his mother for marrying him
It is the
age of twelve to seventeen, he joined the Newton school King in Jerantham, has
left the Newton school in October 1659, and return to the farm and Olsthorb,
where he found his mother was widowed again, and found it had planned to make it
a farmer like his father, but he was hated farming. Persuaded Henry Stokes, a
teacher at the School of the king to return him to his mother's school, so
Newton was able to complete his education. The revenge of the student rioters,
Newton was able to prove to be the best student in the school. Mark Simon Baron
- Cohen, a psychologist in Cambridge that evidence of injury Newton Asperger
syndrome.
In June
1661, he was accepted at Trinity College, Cambridge as a student worker, a
system that includes the time it was common for students to pay expenses of
less than peers that will work for it. At that time, based on the teachings of
the college on the teachings of Aristotle, Newton completed by the teachings of
modern philosophers Descartes Kren, and astronomers such as Nicolaus Copernicus
and Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler. In 1665, Newton discovered the
binomial theorem public, and began to develop a mathematical theory became
another later in the calculus. And shortly after, he got Newton on his degree
in August 1665, then closed the university as a precaution against a temporary
Great Plague. Despite the lack of presence in Cambridge, Newton's own studies
have seen in his home in Olsthorb in the next two years to develop his theories
on calculus, optics and the law of gravity. In 1667, he returned to Cambridge
and Trinity College Zamel. The Fellowship of the college requires applicants to
retrace the fellowship as priests, which Newton had hoped to avoid the lack of
agreement with his religious views. Luckily for Newton, there was no specific
deadline to do so, and it could be postponed indefinitely. The problem became
more severe later when Newton was elected for the post of Professor of
Mathematics Ocazi prestigious. Had to be his ordination to get that job, but he
was able to obtain special permission from Charles II, King of England exempted
from it.
Mathematics
She works
Newton for most branches of mathematics, and perhaps the most important
manuscript published in 1666, on the subject of the calculus. Isaac Barrow has
been described in a letter sent by the mathematician John Collins in August
1669, saying: «acts of Mr. Newton, a fellow in our college, it is very small
... But genius Extraordinary and adept at such things. »
Newton
entered in a dispute with Gottfried Leibniz about the primacy of the
development of calculus. Most historians believe that the modern Newton and
Leibniz both developed calculus independently. There are those who say that
Newton did not publish almost anything on the subject until 1693, has not been
published in full only in 1704, while Leibniz published his work in the full
year 1684. However, this argument ignores the contents of the book Newton's
Principia Mathematica natural philosophy, published in 1687, one of the foundations
and principles of calculus, as well as stated in his book "about the
movement of objects in orbit," published in 1684. However, the work of
Newton basically relied on the calculus in the form of engineering, based on
the specific values of the ratios
vanishing small quantities: and explained in his book assets sports-themed
"method of descent, first and last," explained the commentary did not
put in those formulas.
For this
reason, the sports book assets described in the modern era as "the book is
replete with the theory of calculus and its applications," also used one
or more of the account in his book about the movement of objects in orbit in
1684. As well as in research on the movement in the next two decades for the
year 1684.
Newton hesitation
in spreading calculus because he feared controversy and criticism. Newton was a
close relationship with the world of Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de
Douillet, who began rewriting the book Newton's Principia Mathematica in 1691,
consistent with the work of Leibniz. However, in 1693, deteriorated
relationship between Douillet and Newton, and did not complete the book. The
start of 1699, accused other members of the Royal Society (which Newton was
where members) Leibniz stole ideas, the conflict reached a peak in 1711, when
it announced the Royal Society in a study that Newton is detected real-calculus
and Leibniz hustler. However, this study has become a field of doubt, after it
was later found that Newton himself is the author of the study. Thus began the
bitter controversy that marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz, until the
death of the latter in 1716.
Newton is
also credited for the binomial theorem, valid for any OS. Also discovered the
identities of Newton and Newton's method, which is classified curves surfaces
(polynomial of the third degree in two variables, which made significant
contributions to the theory of finite differences), and was the first to use
symbols fractures and analytic geometry employed to derive solutions to the equation.
Near Newton partial values for the sequential
coordinated Ballegareetmat (anticipating formula Euler - Maclaurin). It was
Newton's work on non-final series inspired by the work of Stephen Simon.
In 1669,
Newton was appointed professor of mathematics Ocazi on the recommendation of
Barrow. In that period, was required in any fellow of Cambridge or Oxford to be
ordained Anglican priest. However, the function of Ocazi professor of
mathematics, were not required to be an active owner in the church. Based on
this, Newton sought from Charles II, King of England to relieve him of the
painter as a condition for admission to that function, which is accepted by the
king. Thus, to avoid a clash between Newton's religious convictions and belief
evangelical.
Optics
From 1670
until 1672, he gave a lecture in Newton optics. During this period, he studied
the refraction of light, and explained that the prism can sink analysis of
white light into colors of the visible spectrum, and that by using the lens and
prism else can reassemble the multicolored spectrum into white light.
Scientists argue that the idea of contemporary
analysis of the light and return to the old image, inspired by Newton from his alchemical.
It also
showed that the colored light does not change its properties by separating the
colored beam, and shedding on different things. He pointed out that regardless
of whether or dispersion of light reflected or moved, it keeps the same color.
Thus, note that the color is the result of the interaction of objects with
colored light already, things are not that breed of color. This is what is
known as Newton's theory of colors
Through this
work, Newton concluded that any telescope lenses lenses suffer from distracting
light into colors (chromatic aberration). Based on this concept, making a
telescope mirror using the object-oriented operating the lens to overcome this
problem. The design was the first practical telescope reflector (known today as
the Newton Telescope), including solving the problem of the mirror appropriate
material and technical conformation. Newton making Mraiyah combination of
special material of high reflectivity, using Newton's rings to judge the
quality of the visual Mqrapath. In late 1668, was able to make the first
practical reflector telescope. In 1671, the Royal Society asked him to explain
the reflector telescope. Encouraged their interest to publish his ideas about
colors, which explained in detail in his book Optics. When Robert Hooke
criticized some of the ideas of Newton, Newton felt offended that he withdrew
from public debate. Was between Newton and hook correspondence few in the
period between 1679-1680, when he was appointed the hook for the management of
correspondence of the Royal Society, the correspondence in order to seek
approval from Newton to re-enact the ideas of the Royal Society, to prove that
the oval shape of the orbits of the planets caused by the forces of gravity is
inversely proportional to the square Radius (see the law of attraction to the
public Newton and about the movement of objects in orbits). But the
relationship between the two men remained frosty until the death of the hook
Newton
claimed that light consists of particles deviate by speeding up the movement in
the center of the most dense. Newton used a similar model for the sound waves
to explain the repeated pattern of reflection and thought to go through the
thin films. However, the physicists later preferred, the description of the
light wavelength purely for models overlap and the phenomenon of diffraction.
Today, similar quantum mechanics and photons and the idea of dual wave and particle slightly with an
understanding of Newton's light.
In his
hypothesis about the light in 1675, Newton postulated the existence of glittery
raised for the transfer of forces between the molecules. Newton raised the know
on Henry Moore's interest in alchemy. Newton replaced the ether idea of the existence of mysterious forces depends on the attraction
and repulsion between particles. In 1704, he published his book, Newton's
optics, which explain the theory of light. He said that light consists of
particles of very accurate, and speculated that through a kind of alchemical
transfers
«"
Large particle and light can convert one to the other, ... and may not receive
objects most of its energy from light particles within the composition? "
An article
entitled "Newton's prisms and the Book of Optics" that Newton in his
Optics, was the first to draw a sketch of the extended rays through the prism.
In the same book, Newton described through diagrams, matrices using multiple
prisms. After 278 years of Newton's explanation of the subject, has become a
multi-rays prisms dilated essential in the development of the spectral line
width in stainless laser tuning. Also, he led the use of prisms expanded beams
to put the theory of dispersion across multiple prisms.
Mechanics
and gravity
In 1679,
Newton returned to continue his work on celestial mechanics, which include
gravity and its effects on the orbits of the planets, according to Kepler's
laws of planetary motion. Newton pay to continue to work in this area, which
was correspondence between him and hook the years 1679-1680, after the
appointment of a manager to manage the hook correspondence of the Royal
Society, regarding the approval of Newton's work on the simulation work Newton
clarified in front of the Royal Society. Newton also regained his interest in
astronomical matters after the emergence of guilty in the winter of 1680/1681,
which discussed around with John Flamsteed. After correspondence with the hook,
Newton proved that the oval shape of the orbits of the planets caused by
gravitational forces fit inversely with the square of the radius of the
distance. Newton reported its findings to Edmond Halley and to the Royal
Society in his research component of the motion of the planets around 9 papers
were copied in the register of the Royal Society in December 1684. Find it
contained a kernel developed by Newton and Usaha to become his book
"Principia Mathematica natural philosophy."
Sports book
publishing assets of natural philosophy in the July 5, 1687 to encourage and
support material of Edmund Halley. In this work, the development of Newton's
laws of motion, which helped to bring about a lot of developments during the
Industrial Revolution, which quickly became the foundation upon which the technology
is relative to the present. It also includes, for the first time used the
concept of gravity, the law of attraction and select General Newton. Also,
similar to the method used calculus for engineering analysis 'first and last
ratios', reach out to the first analytical reasoning (based on Boyle's law) to
estimate the speed of sound in air. And assuming spherical shape of the earth,
to reach due to the fact that the equinoxes Moon attraction of the Earth, to
begin to study the effect of gravity on the irregular movement of the moon. He
also presented the theory to determine the orbits of comets, and other
contributions.
Newton
presented clearly about the heliocentric model of the solar system, where the
sun catches deviation from the center of the solar system. It also condemned to
be the center of the system or any system in the quiescent state. Newton led
delivery of the existence of a force capable of influencing across vast
distances to being criticized on the grounds that it caused in science. Later,
in the second edition of his book Principia Mathematica in 1713, Newton firmly
rejected such criticisms in the finale edition, saying they rejected it without
reasons, his phrase appended his famous "hypotheses non fingo" (I do
not invent hypotheses). The spread his assets sports internationally, which
earned him a number of admirers, including Swiss-born mathematician Nicolas
Fatio de Douillet, who formed a strong relationship between the two, ended
abruptly in 1693 in conjunction with the Newton subjected to a nervous
breakdown.
His old
age
In the last
decade of the seventeenth century, wrote Newton's religious writings dealing
with the literal interpretation of the Bible. Are likely to be Henry Moore
beliefs about the universe and reject Cartesian dualism may have influenced
Newton's religious ideas. Newton Bmkhtooth sent to John Locke in which he
questioned the existence of the Trinity, this manuscript remained unpublished
until 1785, after more than half a century of his death. Later, Newton wrote,
"the chronology of ancient kingdoms," which was published in 1728,
and "Observations on the Prophecies of Daniel and the Revelation of St.
John," published in 1733, which they published after his death. As also
devoted a great deal of his time to the study of alchemy. Newton was also a
member of the Parliament of England in the years 1689-1690 and in 1701, but
according to some sources, only that his comments were only to complain about
the cold weather and are asked to close the windows.
In 1696, Newton
moved to London to take over as director of the Royal Mint. Then, Newton took
over the responsibility of repair and re-currency SEC England. Newton then
became head of the same house after the death of its president Neil Thomas in
1699, a post he held until his death Newton. Newton interested in new career
which urged him to resign from his job at the University of Cambridge in 1701.
In 1717 and according to the law of Queen Anne, Newton managed the process of
converting the pound of silver to the whole body of gold during the interview
to determine the exchange value of gold from silver. Making of pounds of old
silver is dissolved and shipped out of Britain. In 1703, Newton was chosen as
president of the Royal Society and a Fellow of the French Academy of Sciences.
In his position as president of the Royal Society, Newton Normal Astronomer
Royal John Flamsteed, when forced him to publish his book astronomical
"Description positions of the stars" before you finish him, a book
used by Newton in his studies.
In April
1705, Queen Anne granted a knighthood during a visit to Trinity College in
Cambridge. It is likely to give him a knighthood was based on political
considerations linked to the parliamentary elections in May 1705, in
recognition of his achievements are not scientific nor for his services in the
Mint. Newton became the world's second gets the title after Sir Francis Bacon.
Near the end
of his life, lived in Newton Carnbra Park near Winchester with his niece to his
mother and her husband, until his death in 1727. Has on his niece Catherine
Barton Kondoat which she served as director of his home in Jermyn Street in
London, which was not her intense love.
Newton died
in his sleep in London on March 20, 1727 (March 31, 1727 in accordance with the
modern calendar), and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Being Married, Newton
spent much of his fortune to his relatives during the last years of his life,
and he died without a will. After his death, Newton's hair was examined and
found traces of mercury, which is likely to have resulted from alchemical
experiments. So, it can be explained by Newton kink in late life, injury to
mercury poisoning.
After his
death
Sees
mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange that Newton was the greatest genius who
lived in ever. Newton himself was modest with regard to his achievements, which
appeared in a letter to Robert Hooke in February 1676:
The findings
for something, it is because I stand on the shoulders of giants.
Historians
differ about the destination Newton of that phrase. Some see it came at a time
when Newton and hook in a dispute about the discoveries in the field of optics,
Newton, and was intended to ridicule the words of Hawk (who said he was short
and Ahdba). In contrast, others argue that Newton used the words "I stand
on the shoulders of giants" that were common in that period, after having
used the poet George Herbert this phrase in one of his poems in 1651, where he
said "a dwarf on the shoulders of giant sees farther of the two", and
so Newton analogy describes himself Dwarf standing on the shoulders of the
hook.
Newton
also wrote later in his memoirs:
I do not
know how I look to the world, but I see myself as a boy playing on the
seashore, Otzly from time to time to find a pebble or a soft shell is extremely
beautiful, but in fact there is a big ocean of facts is still undiscovered
rear.
Albert
Einstein was kept in Newton on the wall along with pictures of Faraday and
Maxwell. To date, Newton still has an impact on scientists, as evidenced by a
survey conducted in 2005 when he asked the members of the Royal Society of who
had the biggest impact on the history of science, Newton or Einstein, Newton,
choosing instead to the overall work. In 1999, in a poll of the 100 most
important physicists of the day, they chose Einstein's "greatest physicist
ever", followed by Newton, and in another referendum on the site
PhysicsWeb Newton was in the lead.
Put a
monument to Newton in 1731 in Westminster Abbey, in the north side of the
convent near his grave. Perform this monument sculptor Michael Resprak of white
marble and gray design of architect William Kent,
engraved
on its base in Latin:
Here lies
Isaac Newton, Knight, who strongly and given his God in his mind, and the
principles of sports developed by himself, he discovered the tracks and forms
planets, the paths of comets, extending the Sea Islands, and the different rays
of light, and did not imagine another world before, the properties of the
resulting color. Diligence and faith and wisdom, in his presentation to the
nature of the foot and the holiness of the Bible, showed the greatness of his
philosophy of the great God, and showed the simplicity of the Gospel. The
existence of human beings happy someone like Zen and the existence of the human
race! Born on December 25, 1642, and died on March 20, 1726/7.
In 1795,
William Blake and making colored copper statue of Newton. Between 1978-1988,
designed Harry Ecclestone picture of Newton appeared on the Series D of the
pound sterling issued by the Bank of England, shows where Newton holding a book
and accompanied by a telescope and a prism and a map of the solar system. But
Newton's statue will look at an apple at his feet, is in the Museum of Natural
History at the University of Oxford. In addition to a large bronze statue,
created by Eduardo Bauluzi in 1995, displayed in the courtyard of the British
Library in London.
He told
the English poet Alexander Pope:
Nature and
the laws of nature remained inert disguised in the dark,
So Allah
said to Newton Be Vodhaet whole.
He described
William Wordsworth marble statue of Newton at Trinity College in Cambridge,
said:
Mansoob
marble statue of Newton at the Church of the Trinity College Bmochorh and
silent face, evidence of the existence of an eternal mind toured the exotic
seas of thought alone.
As mentioned
by the poet William Blake in his book "Jerusalem: the return of the Giant
Albion"
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