Isaac Newton

Isaac Newton

Sir Isaac Newton (December 25, 1642 - March 20, 1727) World of English is one of the most prominent scholars contribution in physics and mathematics through the ages, and one of the symbols of the scientific revolution. Newton held the position of president of the Royal Society, and was a member of the English Parliament, in addition to assuming the presidency of the Royal Mint, and his fellowship to Trinity College in Cambridge, the second to Ocazi professor of mathematics at Cambridge University. The foundations of his sports assets of natural philosophy, which was published for the first time in 1687, most of the principles of classical mechanics. He also presented Newton also made important contributions in the field of optics, and Gottfried Leibniz participated in laying the foundations of calculus.

Newton formulated the laws of motion and law of gravitation, which seized control of the universe, scientists see the material for the next three centuries. It also demonstrated that the movement of objects on Earth and of celestial objects can be described according to the same principles of motion and gravity. Through the derivation of Kepler's laws of gravity described athlete, Newton removed the last doubts about the validity of the theory of the heliocentric model of the universe.

Newton made the first practical telescope reflector, and the development of a theory of color based on his observations reached by using a prism Dispersion analysis of white light to the visible spectrum, as coined practical law for cooling and studied the speed of sound. In addition to the founding of the calculus, Newton also contributed to the study of power series and the binomial theorem, and the development of Newton's method to approximate the roots of functions.

Newton was a devout Christian, but are non-traditional. It has refused to take the sacred teachings of the Anglican, perhaps because he refused to faith in the doctrine of the Trinity. Newton also spent a lot of time in the study of alchemy and the history of the Old Testament, but most of its work in these areas remained unpublished until long after his death.

Its inception

Isaac Newton was born on December 25, 1642 (according to the Julian calendar in force in England at the time, corresponding to January 4, 1643 in accordance with the modern calendar). On a farm and Olsthorb in Olsthorb - Claustroorth, in the province of Enkoncher, after the death of his father three months, who was a farmer also named Isaac Newton. Came his mother's labor and gave birth to her son after an hour or two from the middle of the night and the moon was in that night is full, and due to his birth early was a kid small size so that the two women were Tatinean his mother were sent to fetch medicine from the neighborhood but instead of would accelerate to bring the drug decided that Tstriha On the way, thinking that a child born of them may have died because of its size. Has been described by his mother Hanna Ayskov that can be placed in the quart. When he was three years old, his mother married and moved to live in the home of her new husband, leaving her son in the care of his grandmother to his mother, which was called Margaret Ayskov. Isaac did not endear stepfather, but he feels the feelings of hostility towards his mother for marrying him

It is the age of twelve to seventeen, he joined the Newton school King in Jerantham, has left the Newton school in October 1659, and return to the farm and Olsthorb, where he found his mother was widowed again, and found it had planned to make it a farmer like his father, but he was hated farming. Persuaded Henry Stokes, a teacher at the School of the king to return him to his mother's school, so Newton was able to complete his education. The revenge of the student rioters, Newton was able to prove to be the best student in the school. Mark Simon Baron - Cohen, a psychologist in Cambridge that evidence of injury Newton Asperger syndrome.

In June 1661, he was accepted at Trinity College, Cambridge as a student worker, a system that includes the time it was common for students to pay expenses of less than peers that will work for it. At that time, based on the teachings of the college on the teachings of Aristotle, Newton completed by the teachings of modern philosophers Descartes Kren, and astronomers such as Nicolaus Copernicus and Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler. In 1665, Newton discovered the binomial theorem public, and began to develop a mathematical theory became another later in the calculus. And shortly after, he got Newton on his degree in August 1665, then closed the university as a precaution against a temporary Great Plague. Despite the lack of presence in Cambridge, Newton's own studies have seen in his home in Olsthorb in the next two years to develop his theories on calculus, optics and the law of gravity. In 1667, he returned to Cambridge and Trinity College Zamel. The Fellowship of the college requires applicants to retrace the fellowship as priests, which Newton had hoped to avoid the lack of agreement with his religious views. Luckily for Newton, there was no specific deadline to do so, and it could be postponed indefinitely. The problem became more severe later when Newton was elected for the post of Professor of Mathematics Ocazi prestigious. Had to be his ordination to get that job, but he was able to obtain special permission from Charles II, King of England exempted from it.

Mathematics

She works Newton for most branches of mathematics, and perhaps the most important manuscript published in 1666, on the subject of the calculus. Isaac Barrow has been described in a letter sent by the mathematician John Collins in August 1669, saying: «acts of Mr. Newton, a fellow in our college, it is very small ... But genius Extraordinary and adept at such things. »

Newton entered in a dispute with Gottfried Leibniz about the primacy of the development of calculus. Most historians believe that the modern Newton and Leibniz both developed calculus independently. There are those who say that Newton did not publish almost anything on the subject until 1693, has not been published in full only in 1704, while Leibniz published his work in the full year 1684. However, this argument ignores the contents of the book Newton's Principia Mathematica natural philosophy, published in 1687, one of the foundations and principles of calculus, as well as stated in his book "about the movement of objects in orbit," published in 1684. However, the work of Newton basically relied on the calculus in the form of engineering, based on the specific values ​​of the ratios vanishing small quantities: and explained in his book assets sports-themed "method of descent, first and last," explained the commentary did not put in those formulas.

For this reason, the sports book assets described in the modern era as "the book is replete with the theory of calculus and its applications," also used one or more of the account in his book about the movement of objects in orbit in 1684. As well as in research on the movement in the next two decades for the year 1684.

Newton hesitation in spreading calculus because he feared controversy and criticism. Newton was a close relationship with the world of Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Douillet, who began rewriting the book Newton's Principia Mathematica in 1691, consistent with the work of Leibniz. However, in 1693, deteriorated relationship between Douillet and Newton, and did not complete the book. The start of 1699, accused other members of the Royal Society (which Newton was where members) Leibniz stole ideas, the conflict reached a peak in 1711, when it announced the Royal Society in a study that Newton is detected real-calculus and Leibniz hustler. However, this study has become a field of doubt, after it was later found that Newton himself is the author of the study. Thus began the bitter controversy that marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz, until the death of the latter in 1716.

Newton is also credited for the binomial theorem, valid for any OS. Also discovered the identities of Newton and Newton's method, which is classified curves surfaces (polynomial of the third degree in two variables, which made significant contributions to the theory of finite differences), and was the first to use symbols fractures and analytic geometry employed to derive solutions to the equation. Near Newton partial values ​​for the sequential coordinated Ballegareetmat (anticipating formula Euler - Maclaurin). It was Newton's work on non-final series inspired by the work of Stephen Simon.

In 1669, Newton was appointed professor of mathematics Ocazi on the recommendation of Barrow. In that period, was required in any fellow of Cambridge or Oxford to be ordained Anglican priest. However, the function of Ocazi professor of mathematics, were not required to be an active owner in the church. Based on this, Newton sought from Charles II, King of England to relieve him of the painter as a condition for admission to that function, which is accepted by the king. Thus, to avoid a clash between Newton's religious convictions and belief evangelical.

Optics

From 1670 until 1672, he gave a lecture in Newton optics. During this period, he studied the refraction of light, and explained that the prism can sink analysis of white light into colors of the visible spectrum, and that by using the lens and prism else can reassemble the multicolored spectrum into white light. Scientists argue that the idea of ​​contemporary analysis of the light and return to the old image, inspired by Newton from his alchemical.

It also showed that the colored light does not change its properties by separating the colored beam, and shedding on different things. He pointed out that regardless of whether or dispersion of light reflected or moved, it keeps the same color. Thus, note that the color is the result of the interaction of objects with colored light already, things are not that breed of color. This is what is known as Newton's theory of colors

Through this work, Newton concluded that any telescope lenses lenses suffer from distracting light into colors (chromatic aberration). Based on this concept, making a telescope mirror using the object-oriented operating the lens to overcome this problem. The design was the first practical telescope reflector (known today as the Newton Telescope), including solving the problem of the mirror appropriate material and technical conformation. Newton making Mraiyah combination of special material of high reflectivity, using Newton's rings to judge the quality of the visual Mqrapath. In late 1668, was able to make the first practical reflector telescope. In 1671, the Royal Society asked him to explain the reflector telescope. Encouraged their interest to publish his ideas about colors, which explained in detail in his book Optics. When Robert Hooke criticized some of the ideas of Newton, Newton felt offended that he withdrew from public debate. Was between Newton and hook correspondence few in the period between 1679-1680, when he was appointed the hook for the management of correspondence of the Royal Society, the correspondence in order to seek approval from Newton to re-enact the ideas of the Royal Society, to prove that the oval shape of the orbits of the planets caused by the forces of gravity is inversely proportional to the square Radius (see the law of attraction to the public Newton and about the movement of objects in orbits). But the relationship between the two men remained frosty until the death of the hook

Newton claimed that light consists of particles deviate by speeding up the movement in the center of the most dense. Newton used a similar model for the sound waves to explain the repeated pattern of reflection and thought to go through the thin films. However, the physicists later preferred, the description of the light wavelength purely for models overlap and the phenomenon of diffraction. Today, similar quantum mechanics and photons and the idea of ​​dual wave and particle slightly with an understanding of Newton's light.

In his hypothesis about the light in 1675, Newton postulated the existence of glittery raised for the transfer of forces between the molecules. Newton raised the know on Henry Moore's interest in alchemy. Newton replaced the ether idea of ​​the existence of mysterious forces depends on the attraction and repulsion between particles. In 1704, he published his book, Newton's optics, which explain the theory of light. He said that light consists of particles of very accurate, and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transfers

«" Large particle and light can convert one to the other, ... and may not receive objects most of its energy from light particles within the composition? "

An article entitled "Newton's prisms and the Book of Optics" that Newton in his Optics, was the first to draw a sketch of the extended rays through the prism. In the same book, Newton described through diagrams, matrices using multiple prisms. After 278 years of Newton's explanation of the subject, has become a multi-rays prisms dilated essential in the development of the spectral line width in stainless laser tuning. Also, he led the use of prisms expanded beams to put the theory of dispersion across multiple prisms.

Mechanics and gravity

In 1679, Newton returned to continue his work on celestial mechanics, which include gravity and its effects on the orbits of the planets, according to Kepler's laws of planetary motion. Newton pay to continue to work in this area, which was correspondence between him and hook the years 1679-1680, after the appointment of a manager to manage the hook correspondence of the Royal Society, regarding the approval of Newton's work on the simulation work Newton clarified in front of the Royal Society. Newton also regained his interest in astronomical matters after the emergence of guilty in the winter of 1680/1681, which discussed around with John Flamsteed. After correspondence with the hook, Newton proved that the oval shape of the orbits of the planets caused by gravitational forces fit inversely with the square of the radius of the distance. Newton reported its findings to Edmond Halley and to the Royal Society in his research component of the motion of the planets around 9 papers were copied in the register of the Royal Society in December 1684. Find it contained a kernel developed by Newton and Usaha to become his book "Principia Mathematica natural philosophy."

Sports book publishing assets of natural philosophy in the July 5, 1687 to encourage and support material of Edmund Halley. In this work, the development of Newton's laws of motion, which helped to bring about a lot of developments during the Industrial Revolution, which quickly became the foundation upon which the technology is relative to the present. It also includes, for the first time used the concept of gravity, the law of attraction and select General Newton. Also, similar to the method used calculus for engineering analysis 'first and last ratios', reach out to the first analytical reasoning (based on Boyle's law) to estimate the speed of sound in air. And assuming spherical shape of the earth, to reach due to the fact that the equinoxes Moon attraction of the Earth, to begin to study the effect of gravity on the irregular movement of the moon. He also presented the theory to determine the orbits of comets, and other contributions.

Newton presented clearly about the heliocentric model of the solar system, where the sun catches deviation from the center of the solar system. It also condemned to be the center of the system or any system in the quiescent state. Newton led delivery of the existence of a force capable of influencing across vast distances to being criticized on the grounds that it caused in science. Later, in the second edition of his book Principia Mathematica in 1713, Newton firmly rejected such criticisms in the finale edition, saying they rejected it without reasons, his phrase appended his famous "hypotheses non fingo" (I do not invent hypotheses). The spread his assets sports internationally, which earned him a number of admirers, including Swiss-born mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Douillet, who formed a strong relationship between the two, ended abruptly in 1693 in conjunction with the Newton subjected to a nervous breakdown.

His old age

In the last decade of the seventeenth century, wrote Newton's religious writings dealing with the literal interpretation of the Bible. Are likely to be Henry Moore beliefs about the universe and reject Cartesian dualism may have influenced Newton's religious ideas. Newton Bmkhtooth sent to John Locke in which he questioned the existence of the Trinity, this manuscript remained unpublished until 1785, after more than half a century of his death. Later, Newton wrote, "the chronology of ancient kingdoms," which was published in 1728, and "Observations on the Prophecies of Daniel and the Revelation of St. John," published in 1733, which they published after his death. As also devoted a great deal of his time to the study of alchemy. Newton was also a member of the Parliament of England in the years 1689-1690 and in 1701, but according to some sources, only that his comments were only to complain about the cold weather and are asked to close the windows.

In 1696, Newton moved to London to take over as director of the Royal Mint. Then, Newton took over the responsibility of repair and re-currency SEC England. Newton then became head of the same house after the death of its president Neil Thomas in 1699, a post he held until his death Newton. Newton interested in new career which urged him to resign from his job at the University of Cambridge in 1701. In 1717 and according to the law of Queen Anne, Newton managed the process of converting the pound of silver to the whole body of gold during the interview to determine the exchange value of gold from silver. Making of pounds of old silver is dissolved and shipped out of Britain. In 1703, Newton was chosen as president of the Royal Society and a Fellow of the French Academy of Sciences. In his position as president of the Royal Society, Newton Normal Astronomer Royal John Flamsteed, when forced him to publish his book astronomical "Description positions of the stars" before you finish him, a book used by Newton in his studies.

In April 1705, Queen Anne granted a knighthood during a visit to Trinity College in Cambridge. It is likely to give him a knighthood was based on political considerations linked to the parliamentary elections in May 1705, in recognition of his achievements are not scientific nor for his services in the Mint. Newton became the world's second gets the title after Sir Francis Bacon.

Near the end of his life, lived in Newton Carnbra Park near Winchester with his niece to his mother and her husband, until his death in 1727. Has on his niece Catherine Barton Kondoat which she served as director of his home in Jermyn Street in London, which was not her intense love.

Newton died in his sleep in London on March 20, 1727 (March 31, 1727 in accordance with the modern calendar), and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Being Married, Newton spent much of his fortune to his relatives during the last years of his life, and he died without a will. After his death, Newton's hair was examined and found traces of mercury, which is likely to have resulted from alchemical experiments. So, it can be explained by Newton kink in late life, injury to mercury poisoning.

After his death

Sees mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange that Newton was the greatest genius who lived in ever. Newton himself was modest with regard to his achievements, which appeared in a letter to Robert Hooke in February 1676:

The findings for something, it is because I stand on the shoulders of giants.

Historians differ about the destination Newton of that phrase. Some see it came at a time when Newton and hook in a dispute about the discoveries in the field of optics, Newton, and was intended to ridicule the words of Hawk (who said he was short and Ahdba). In contrast, others argue that Newton used the words "I stand on the shoulders of giants" that were common in that period, after having used the poet George Herbert this phrase in one of his poems in 1651, where he said "a dwarf on the shoulders of giant sees farther of the two", and so Newton analogy describes himself Dwarf standing on the shoulders of the hook.

Newton also wrote later in his memoirs:

I do not know how I look to the world, but I see myself as a boy playing on the seashore, Otzly from time to time to find a pebble or a soft shell is extremely beautiful, but in fact there is a big ocean of facts is still undiscovered rear.

Albert Einstein was kept in Newton on the wall along with pictures of Faraday and Maxwell. To date, Newton still has an impact on scientists, as evidenced by a survey conducted in 2005 when he asked the members of the Royal Society of who had the biggest impact on the history of science, Newton or Einstein, Newton, choosing instead to the overall work. In 1999, in a poll of the 100 most important physicists of the day, they chose Einstein's "greatest physicist ever", followed by Newton, and in another referendum on the site PhysicsWeb Newton was in the lead.

Put a monument to Newton in 1731 in Westminster Abbey, in the north side of the convent near his grave. Perform this monument sculptor Michael Resprak of white marble and gray design of architect William Kent,

engraved on its base in Latin:

Here lies Isaac Newton, Knight, who strongly and given his God in his mind, and the principles of sports developed by himself, he discovered the tracks and forms planets, the paths of comets, extending the Sea Islands, and the different rays of light, and did not imagine another world before, the properties of the resulting color. Diligence and faith and wisdom, in his presentation to the nature of the foot and the holiness of the Bible, showed the greatness of his philosophy of the great God, and showed the simplicity of the Gospel. The existence of human beings happy someone like Zen and the existence of the human race! Born on December 25, 1642, and died on March 20, 1726/7.

In 1795, William Blake and making colored copper statue of Newton. Between 1978-1988, designed Harry Ecclestone picture of Newton appeared on the Series D of the pound sterling issued by the Bank of England, shows where Newton holding a book and accompanied by a telescope and a prism and a map of the solar system. But Newton's statue will look at an apple at his feet, is in the Museum of Natural History at the University of Oxford. In addition to a large bronze statue, created by Eduardo Bauluzi in 1995, displayed in the courtyard of the British Library in London.

He told the English poet Alexander Pope:

Nature and the laws of nature remained inert disguised in the dark,

So Allah said to Newton Be Vodhaet whole.

He described William Wordsworth marble statue of Newton at Trinity College in Cambridge, said:

Mansoob marble statue of Newton at the Church of the Trinity College Bmochorh and silent face, evidence of the existence of an eternal mind toured the exotic seas of thought alone.

As mentioned by the poet William Blake in his book "Jerusalem: the return of the Giant Albion"

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